Spatio-Temporal Evaluation of Physicochemical Parameters, Heavy Metals, and Pesticides in the Little Zab River
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14500/aro.12364Keywords:
Heavy metals, Little Zab River, Pesticides, Physicochemical, WaterAbstract
Water quality is a fundamental determinant of human health, influencing the prevalence of waterborne diseases and the overall safety of potable water. Contaminated water sources expose populations to microbial pathogens and toxic chemical contaminants, presenting significant public health and environmental challenges. In this study, a comprehensive assessment of water quality was conducted on a segment of the Little Zab River, situated in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Water samples were meticulously collected from five strategically selected sites along the river, spanning across all four seasons, to evaluate temporal variations in water quality. In situ measurements of critical physico-chemical parameters, including pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity, dissolved oxygen, density, and turbidity, were performed to establish baseline water quality profiles. Concurrently, laboratory analyses were performed to quantify the concentrations of selected heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, iron, lead, and copper) and pesticides (α-cypermethrin, acetamiprid, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, and p,p՛-DDD) using standardized methods. Descriptive statistical analyses, conducted using Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences, revealed significant spatial and seasonal fluctuations in both the physicochemical parameters and contaminant levels, with certain sites exhibiting concentrations that raise potential health and ecological concerns. The findings underscore the critical need for continuous monitoring of water used in agriculture and the implementation of targeted management strategies to mitigate contamination and protect public health in the region. This work contributes valuable insights into the interplay between natural processes and anthropogenic impacts on riverine water quality in arid and semi-arid environments.
Downloads
References
Afzal, W., Habib, S.S., Ujan, J.A., Mohany, M., and Bibi, H., 2024. Assessment of pesticide residues: A comprehensive analysis of seasonal trends and health implications. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 59, pp.642-653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2024.2406131
Al-Barwary, M.R.A., Meshabaz, R.A., Hussein, N.J., and Ali, N.H., 2018. A comparison of water quality between well and spring samples selected from Soran District, Northern Erbil Governorate, Kurdistan Region - Iraq. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 454, p.012062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/454/1/012062
Al-Dabbas, M., 2024. Water resources of Iraq: An Overview. Springer, Cham, pp.49-81. Altenburger, R., Brack, W., Burgess, R.M., Busch, W., Escher, B.I., Focks, A., Mark Hewitt, L., Jacobsen, B.N., de Alda, M.L., Ait-Aissa, S., Backhaus, T., Ginebreda, A., Hilscherová, K., Hollender, J., Hollert, H., Neale, P.A., Schulze, T., Schymanski, E.L., Teodorovic, I., Tindall, A.J., de Aragão Umbuzeiro, G., Vrana, B., Zonja, B., and Krauss, M., 2019. Future water quality monitoring: Improving the balance between exposure and toxicity assessments of real-world pollutant mixtures. Environmental Sciences Europe, 31, p.12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0193-1
American Public Health Association, 2017. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The Water Environment Federation. 23rd ed. American Public Health Association, United States.
Carvalho, F.P., 2017. Pesticides, environment, and food safety. Food Energy Security, 6, pp.48-60. Cayan, D.R., and Peterson, D.H., 1993. Spring climate and salinity in the San Francisco Bay Estuary. Water Resources Research, 29, pp.293-303. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/92WR02152
Das, S., 2023. An Introduction to Water Quality Science, An Introduction to Water Quality Science. Springer International Publishing, Cham. Ding, J., Zhao, P., Su, J., Dong, Q., Du, X., Zhang, Y., 2019. Aerosol pH and its driving factors in Beijing. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, pp.7939-7954. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-7939-2019
Hamadamin, R., Salih, M., and Hamad, N., 2018. Koya River Water Quality Assessment with a Focus on Physiochemical Properties and Heavy Metals. In: 2018 International Conference on Pure and Applied Science. Koya University, pp.206-212. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14500/icpas2018.ech89
Hines, M.E., Berry Lyons, W., Armstrong, P.B., Orem, W.H., Spencer, M.J., Gaudette, H.E., and Jones, G.E., 1984. Seasonal metal remobilization in the sediments of Great Bay, New Hampshire. Marine Chemistry, 15, pp.173-187. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(84)90014-8
Hofmann, A.F., Middelburg, J.J., Soetaert, K., and Meysman, F.J.R., 2009. pH modelling in aquatic systems with time-variable acid-base dissociation constants applied to the turbid, tidal Scheldt estuary. Biogeosciences, 6, pp.1539-1561. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-1539-2009
Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., and Sreedev, P., 2016. Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 9, pp.90-100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2016-0012
Kareem, A.T., Hamadamin, R.R., Mustafa, O., Karim, H.A., and Salih, M.Q., 2020. Transport modeling and leaching kinetics in groundwater of shiwashok oil field, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Tikrit Journal of Pure Science, 25, pp.59-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25130/tjps.v25i6.313
Katimba, H.A., Wang, R., Cheng, C., Zhang, Y., Lu, W., and Ma, Y., 2024. Zinc absorption homeostasis in the human body: A general overview. Food Reviews International, 40, pp.715-739. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2023.2195188
Kaur, R., Garkal, A., Sarode, L., Bangar, P., Mehta, T., Singh, D.P., and Rawal, R., 2024. Understanding arsenic toxicity: Implications for environmental exposure and human health. The Journal of Hazardous Materials, 5, p.100090. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2023.100090
Koh, D., Locke, S.J., Chen, Y., Purdue, M.P., and Friesen, M.C., 2015. Lead exposure in US worksites: A literature review and development of an occupational lead exposure database from the published literature. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 58, pp.605-616. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22448
Kumar, S., Rahman, M.A., Islam, M.R., Hashem, M.A., and Rahman, M.M., 2022. Lead and other elements-based pollution in soil, crops and water near a lead-acid battery recycling factory in Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 290, p.133288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133288
Kumar, V., Pandita, S., Singh Sidhu, G.P., Sharma, A., Khanna, K., Kaur, P., Bali, A.S., and Setia, R., 2021. Copper bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and tolerance in plants: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere, 262, p.127810. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127810
Lalín-Pousa, V., Conde-Cid, M., Díaz-Raviña, M., Arias-Estévez, M., and Fernández-Calviño, D., 2025. Acetamiprid retention in agricultural acid soils: Experimental data and prediction. Environmental Research, 268, p.120835. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.120835
Lazarević-Pašti, T., Anićijević, V., Baljozović, M., Anićijević, D.V., Gutić, S., Vasić, V., Skorodumova, N.V., and Pašti, I.A., 2018. The impact of the structure of graphene-based materials on the removal of organophosphorus pesticides from water. Environmental Science: Nano, 5, pp.1482-1494. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EN00171E
Li, D., Zou, M., and Jiang, L., 2022. Dissolved oxygen control strategies for water treatment: A review. Water Science and Technology, 86, pp.1444-1466. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2022.281
Lu, Y., Chen, J., Xu, Q., Han, Z., Peart, M., Ng, C.N., Lee, F.Y.S., Hau, B.C.H., and Law, W.W.Y., 2023. Spatiotemporal variations of river water turbidity in responding to rainstorm-streamflow processes and farming activities in a mountainous catchment, Lai Chi Wo, Hong Kong, China. Science of the Total Environment, 863, p.160759. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160759
Madhav, S., Ahamad, A., Singh, A.K., Kushawaha, J., Chauhan, J.S., Sharma, S., and Singh, P., 2020. Water Pollutants: Sources and Impact on the Environment and Human Health. Springer, Berlin. pp.43-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0671-0_4
Marcheva, Z., Matev, S., Krenchev, D., and Simeonova, B., 2024. Seasonal variation of dissolved oxygen in river water in an urbanized area: example of the Vladayska River. Review of the Bulgarian Geological Society, 85, pp.79-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52215/rev.bgs.2024.85.2.79
Martyniuk, C.J., Mehinto, A.C., and Denslow, N.D., 2020. Organochlorine pesticides: Agrochemicals with potent endocrine-disrupting properties in fish. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 507, p.110764. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2020.110764
Mermer, S., Yalcin, M., and Turgut, C., 2020. The uptake modeling of DDT and its degradation products (o,p′-DDE and p,p′-DDE) from soil. SN Applied Sciences, 2, p.761. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2577-7
Olsen, R.L., Chappell, R.W., and Loftis, J.C., 2012. Water quality sample collection, data treatment and results presentation for principal components analysis - literature review and Illinois River watershed case study. Water Research, 46, pp.3110-3122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.03.028
Park, J.S., Oh, S., Shin, M.Y., Kim, M.K., Yi, S.M., and Zoh, K.D., 2008. Seasonal variation in dissolved gaseous mercury and total mercury concentrations in Juam Reservoir, Korea. Environmental Pollution, 154, pp.12-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.12.002
Peluso, J., Pérez Coll, C.S., Cristos, D., Rojas, D.E., and Aronzon, C.M., 2021. Comprehensive assessment of water quality through different approaches: Physicochemical and ecotoxicological parameters. Science of the Total Environment, 800, p.149510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149510
Pokhrel, G., and Rijal, M.L., 2020. Seasonal variation of springwater in-situ parameters in the bhusundi catchment, Gorkha, Nepal. The Journal of Integrated Science and Technology, 25, pp.45-51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v25i1.29450
Prieto-Amparán, J.A., Rocha-Gutiérrez, B.A., Ballinas-Casarrubias, M. de L., Valles-Aragón, M.C., Peralta-Pérez, M.R., and Pinedo-Alvarez, A., 2018. Multivariate and spatial analysis of physicochemical parameters in an irrigation District, Chihuahua, Mexico. Water, 10, p.1037. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081037
Qasim, S., 2024. Agriculture in Iraq. Springer, Berlin. pp.117-143. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-71356-9_6
Rather, R.A., Ara, S., Sharma, S., Padder, S.A., Lone, F.A., Mir, S.A., Baba, Z.A., Ayoub, I.B., Mir, I.A., Bhat, T.A., and Baba, T.R., 2022. Seasonal changes and determination of heavy metal concentrations in Veshaw river of the Indian western Himalaya. Frontiers in Environmental Chemistry, 3, p.1018576. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvc.2022.1018576
Rawal, S., Jose, J.P., Singh, D., and Linda, A., 2024. Ensuring water security by reviving selected springs in Kangra region, Himachal Himalaya, India. Water Science, 38, pp.239-255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23570008.2024.2333600
Schoeters, G., Hond, E.D., Zuurbier, M., Naginiene, R., Van DenHazel, P., Stilianakis, N., Ronchetti, R., and Koppe, J.G., 2006. Cadmium and children: Exposure and health effects. Acta Paediatrica, 95, pp.50-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08035320600886232
Schreiber, S.G., Schreiber, S., Tanna, R.N., Roberts, D.R., and Arciszewski, T.J., 2022. Statistical tools for water quality assessment and monitoring in river ecosystems - a scoping review and recommendations for data analysis. Water Quality Research Journal, 57, pp.40-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2022.028
Schwarzenbach, R.P., Escher, B.I., Fenner, K., Hofstetter, T.B., Johnson, C.A., von Gunten, U., and Wehrli, B., 2006. The challenge of micropollutants in aquatic systems. Science, 313, pp.1072-1077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127291
Shirasuna, H., Fukushima, T., Matsushige, K., Imai, A., and Ozaki, N., 2006. Runoff and loads of nutrients and heavy metals from an urbanized area. Water Science and Technology, 53, pp.203-213. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.054
Sun, Q., Ma, J., Rifai, N., Franco, O.H., Rexrode, K.M.,and Hu, F.B., 2008. Excessive body iron stores are not associated with risk of coronary heart disease in women. Journal of Nutrition, 138, pp.2436-2441. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097766
Syers, J.K., Mackay, A.D., Brown, M.W., and Currie, L.D., 1986. Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 37, pp.1057-1064. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740371102
Thakur, A., and Devi, P., 2024. A comprehensive review on water quality monitoring devices: Materials advances, current status, and future perspective. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 54, pp.193-218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2022.2070838
Therrien, J.D., Nicolaï, N., and Vanrolleghem, P.A., 2020. A critical review of the data pipeline: how wastewater system operation flows from data to intelligence. Water Science and Technology, 82, pp.2613-2634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.393
Turusov, V., Rakitsky, V., and Tomatis, L., 2002. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): Ubiquity, persistence, and risks. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110, pp.125-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.02110125
Valko, M., Morris, H., and Cronin, M., 2005. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12, pp.1161-1208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867053764635
Wu, J., 2020. Challenges for safe and healthy drinking water in China. Current Environmental Health Reports, 7, pp.292-302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-020-00274-5
Wu, X., Cobbina, S.J., Mao, G., Xu, H., Zhang, Z., and Yang, L., 2016. A review of toxicity and mechanisms of individual and mixtures of heavy metals in the environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, pp.8244-8259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6333-x
Yao, H., Qian, X., Gao, H., Wang, Y., and Xia, B., 2014. Seasonal and spatial variations of heavy metals in two typical chinese rivers: Concentrations, environmental risks, and possible sources. International Journal of Environmental Research Public Health, 11, pp.11860-11878. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph111111860
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Mamoon Q. Salih, Tara F. Tahir, Wali M. Hamad
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who choose to publish their work with Aro agree to the following terms:
-
Authors retain the copyright to their work and grant the journal the right of first publication. The work is simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License [CC BY-NC-SA 4.0]. This license allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
-
Authors have the freedom to enter into separate agreements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work. This includes options such as posting it to an institutional repository or publishing it in a book, as long as proper acknowledgement is given to its initial publication in this journal.
-
Authors are encouraged to share and post their work online, including in institutional repositories or on their personal websites, both prior to and during the submission process. This practice can lead to productive exchanges and increase the visibility and citation of the published work.
By agreeing to these terms, authors acknowledge the importance of open access and the benefits it brings to the scholarly community.
Accepted 2025-10-08
Published 2025-11-11
ARO Journal is a scientific, peer-reviewed, periodical, and diamond OAJ that has no APC or ASC.